A set of verbal inflections is also termed an inflectional paradigm. morphology The level of linguistics which is concerned with the structure of words, both from the point of view of inflections and of word-formation. Taboo words change from generation to generation, e.g. A synchronic law would be the devoicing of obstruents at the end of words (and syllables) in German. grammaticalisation This is an historical process in language which refers to a change in status from lexical to grammatical for certain elements, frequently due to semantic bleaching (loss of lexical meaning). This narrower, linguistic definition restricts acquisition to the period of childhood. root 1) In grammar the unalterable core of a word to which all suffixes are added, e.g. borrowing The act of adopting some aspect of one language into another. gender A feature of many synthetic languages such as German and Latin which group words — nouns and their determiners (articles, pronouns, adjectives) — according to different formal classes. articulatory phonetics One of three standard divisions of phonetics which concerns itself with the production of sounds (compare acoustic and auditive phonetics). voiceless Spoken without the vocal folds vibrating; the folds can either be open (the normal state) or closed with the compression of air between them and the supra-glottal stop position producing sounds which are called ejectives.       Language change [ṯ, ḏ]. Adjectives in this position are termed 'attributive' while those placed after a copula are called 'predicative' as in The snow is very dry. The precise nature and organisation of this mental lexicon is much debated in linguistic literature as it is generally assumed to be radically different in organisation from a conventional dictionary. For instance the present tense is unmarked vis à vis the subjunctive, the nominative vis à vis the genitive, the singular vis à vis the plural, a positive form (clean) vis à vis a negative one (unclean), unround front vowels vis à vis rounded front vowels, etc. compound A term from derivational morphology, i.e. friend in un-friend-li-ness. The term also refers — in syntax — to the ability of speakers to produce an unlimited number of sentences using a limited set of structures. It contrasts directly with a fricative which does not involve an interruption of the airstream. It can refer to the book form of a dictionary (usually with an alphabetic listing of words) or the assumed lexicon which speakers possess mentally. As a scientific discipline built on objective principles, linguistics did not develop until the beginning of the 19th century. Code-switching is governed by fairly strict rules concerning the points in a sentence at which one can change over. word formation The second main branch of morphology (the other being inflection) and the chief process in lexicology (the study of the vocabulary of a language). A major alternative to this was the wave model of Johannes Schmidt (1870). universal Any feature or property which holds for all languages. stem A part of a word to which prefixes and/or suffixes can be added. This is taken as the unmarked or normal instance in language, the plural, or even more so the dual, being marked forms, usually with special inflections characterising them. monophthong A vowel which is articulated with the tongue in a constant position, e.g. family tree A model of language development common in the last century (the term derives from August Schleicher) which sees languages as splitting further in a manner reminiscent of genetic relationships. Acquisition is unconscious, largely unguided and shows a high degree of completeness compared to second language learning. grammaticalisation This is an historical process in language which refers to a change in status from lexical to grammatical for certain elements, frequently due to semantic bleaching (loss of lexical meaning). Normally there is a distinction between singular and plural as well. In connection with the latter point it is important to stress that the standard of a language is nothing more than a dialect which achieved special political and social status at some stage in the past and which has been extensively codified orthographically. Consonants contrast with vowels in their relatively low sonority and are hence found typically in the margins of syllables, i.e. linguistic stigma The condemnation of certain forms in a language by the majority of a social group. stress The acoustic prominence of a syllable in a word. interference The transfer of certain phenomena from one language to another where they are not considered grammatical. polysynthetic A reference to a language which has large complex words in which several grammatical categories are fused together. It is usually implied that no attempt for linguistic generalisations is made. calling all males 'papa'. The same applies to native speakers of Rhenish German when they pronounce Kirschen like Kirchen when they are talking to speakers of High German. In the Chinese linguistic tradition, 'emotional adverbs' belong to the general category of xūcí ('empty words'), whose meanings are often thought to be too elusive to pin down. The term is occasionally used in syntax, as in 'a compound sentence', when referring to a sentence which consists of clauses which in turn could function as sentences on their own. new developments in linguistic theory. negation In a very general sense the process of denying something. areas of linguistics Any of a number of areas of study in which linguistic insights have been brought to bear, for instance sociolinguistics in which scholars study society and the way language is used in it. This word is thus a new word which is gained by combining two or more morphologically simpler words, e.g. Applied linguistics This is an English term which refers to purely spoken forms of a language. voiceless Spoken without the vocal folds vibrating; the folds can either be open (the normal state) or closed with the compression of air between them and the supra-glottal stop position producing sounds which are called ejectives. indirect speech act Any utterance where there is a discrepancy between literal and intended meaning, e.g. direct object An item in a sentence which indicates the object or being which is immediately affected by the action of the verb, e.g. The number of these has been greatly reduced so that present-day generative grammar believes that only one transformation is required, given the general form 'move alpha'. speech The production of sounds using the organs of speech; contrasts directly with writing which is a secondary medium for communication via language. in French there are distinct oral and nasal vowels. The boundaries between dialects are always gradual. German Kunst # Gunst and English railing # sailing which show that the initial sounds in all these words are phonemes in the respective languages.
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